The structure of the pore-forming protein VDAC-1 from humans. This molecule mediates the flow of products needed for metabolism--in particular the export of ATP--across the outer membrane of mitochondria, the power plants for eukaryotic cells. VDAC-1 is involved in metabolism and the self-destruction of cells--two biological processes central to health.

Related to images 2491, 2494, and 2488.

Spinal nerves are part of the peripheral nervous system. They run within the spinal column to carry nerve signals to and from all parts of the body. The spinal nerves enable all the movements we do, from turning our heads to wiggling our toes, control the movements of our internal organs, such as the colon and the bladder, as well as allow us to feel touch and the location of our limbs.

Crystals of jack bean concanavalin A protein created for X-ray crystallography, which can reveal detailed, three-dimensional protein structures.

This image shows a computer-generated, three-dimensional map of the rotavirus structure. This virus infects humans and other animals and causes severe diarrhea in infants and young children. By the age of five, almost every child in the world has been infected with this virus at least once. Scientists have found a vaccine against rotavirus, so in the United States there are very few fatalities, but in developing countries and in places where the vaccine is unavailable, this virus is responsible for more than 200,000 deaths each year.

The rotavirus comprises three layers: the outer, middle and inner layers. On infection, the outer layer is removed, leaving behind a "double-layered particle." Researchers have studied the structure of this double-layered particle with a transmission electron microscope. Many images of the virus at a magnification of ~50,000x were acquired, and computational analysis was used to combine the individual particle images into a three-dimensional reconstruction.

The image was rendered by Melody Campbell (PhD student at TSRI). Work that led to the 3D map was published in Campbell et al. Movies of ice-embedded particles enhance resolution in electron cryo-microscopy. Structure. 2012;20(11):1823-8. PMCID: PMC3510009.

This image was part of the Life: Magnified exhibit that ran from June 3, 2014, to January 21, 2015, at Dulles International Airport.

Scanning electron micrograph of just-divided HeLa cells. Zeiss Merlin HR-SEM. See related images 3519, 3520, 3521, 3522.

The cerebellum is the brain's locomotion control center. Found at the base of your brain, the cerebellum is a single layer of tissue with deep folds like an accordion. People with damage to this region of the brain often have difficulty with balance, coordination and fine motor skills.

This image of a mouse cerebellum is part of a collection of such images in different colors and at different levels of magnification from the National Center for Microscopy and Imaging Research (NCMIR). Related to image 5800.

The fledgling field of X-ray microscopy lets researchers look inside whole cells rapidly frozen to capture their actions at that very moment. Here, a yeast cell buds before dividing into two. Colors show different parts of the cell. Seeing whole cells frozen in time will help scientists observe cells' complex structures and follow how molecules move inside them.

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is most prevalent in connective tissues but also is present between the stems (axons) of nerve cells. The axons of nerve cells are surrounded by the ECM encasing myelin-supplying Schwann cells, which insulate the axons to help speed the transmission of electric nerve impulses along the axons.

Featured in the March 15, 2012 issue of Biomedical Beat. Related to Hsp33 Figure 1, image 3354.

Human embryonic stem cells were differentiated into cells like those found in the pancreas (blue), which give rise to insulin-producing cells (red). When implanted in mice, the stem cell-derived pancreatic cells can replace the insulin that isn't produced in type 1 diabetes. Image and caption information courtesy of the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine.

A light microscope image of cells from the endosperm of an African globe lily (Scadoxus katherinae). This is one frame of a time-lapse sequence that shows cell division in action. The lily is considered a good organism for studying cell division because its chromosomes are much thicker and easier to see than human ones. Staining shows microtubules in red and chromosomes in blue. Here, two cells have formed after a round of mitosis.

Related to images 1010, 1011, 1012, 1013, 1014, 1015, 1016, 1017, 1018, and 1021.

In 2007, the FDA modified warfarin's label to indicate that genetic makeup may affect patient response to the drug. The widely used blood thinner is sold under the brand name Coumadin®. Scientists involved in the NIH Pharmacogenetics Research Network are investigating whether genetic information can be used to improve optimal dosage prediction for patients.

The receptor is shown bound to an antagonist, eticlopride

The interior of a regenerating lizard tail 14 days after the original tail was amputated. Cell nuclei (blue), proliferating cells (green), cartilage (red), and muscle (white) have been visualized with immunofluorescence staining.

These smooth muscle cells were derived from mouse neural crest stem cells. Red indicates smooth muscle proteins, blue indicates nuclei. Image and caption information courtesy of the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine.

In the gene-editing tool CRISPR, a small strand of RNA identifies a specific chunk of DNA. Then the enzyme Cas9 (green) swoops in and cuts the double-stranded DNA (blue/purple) in two places, removing the specific chunk.

Cell-like compartments that spontaneously emerged from scrambled frog eggs. Endoplasmic reticulum (red) and microtubules (green) are visible. Image created using epifluorescence microscopy.

For more photos of cell-like compartments from frog eggs view: 6584, 6585, 6591, 6592, and 6593.

For videos of cell-like compartments from frog eggs view: 6587, 6588, 6589, and 6590.

A protein called tubulin (green) accumulates in the center of a nucleus (outlined in pink) from an aging cell. Normally, this protein is kept out of the nucleus with the help of gatekeepers known as nuclear pore complexes. But NIGMS-funded researchers found that wear and tear to long-lived components of the complexes eventually lowers the gatekeepers' guard. As a result, cytoplasmic proteins like tubulin gain entry to the nucleus while proteins normally confined to the nucleus seep out. The work suggests that finding ways to stop the leakage could slow the cellular aging process and possibly lead to new therapies for age-related diseases.

Protein kinases—enzymes that add phosphate groups to molecules—are cancer chemotherapy targets because they play significant roles in almost all aspects of cell function, are tightly regulated, and contribute to the development of cancer and other diseases if any alterations to their regulation occur. Genetic abnormalities affecting the c-Abl tyrosine kinase are linked to chronic myelogenous leukemia, a cancer of immature cells in the bone marrow. In the noncancerous form of the protein, binding of a myristoyl group to the kinase domain inhibits the activity of the protein until it is needed (top left shows the inactive form, top right shows the open and active form). The cancerous variant of the protein, called Bcr-Abl, lacks this autoinhibitory myristoyl group and is continually active (bottom). ATP is shown in green bound in the active site of the kinase.

Find these in the RCSB Protein Data Bank: c-Abl tyrosine kinase and regulatory domains (PDB entry 1OPL) and F-actin binding domain (PDB entry 1ZZP).

This crystal structure shows a conserved hypothetical protein from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Only 12 other proteins share its sequence homology, and none has a known function. This structure indicates the protein may play a role in metabolic pathways. Featured as one of the August 2007 Protein Structure Initiative Structures of the Month.

NIGMS staff are located in the Natcher Building on the NIH campus.

This lab space was designed for work on the induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cell collection, part of the NIGMS Human Genetic Cell Repository at the Coriell Institute for Medical Research.

NIGMS staff are located in the Natcher Building on the NIH campus.

Here, a human HeLa cell (a type of immortal cell line used in laboratory experiments) is undergoing cell division. They come from cervical cancer cells that were obtained in 1951 from Henrietta Lacks, a patient at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. The final stage of division, called cytokinesis, occurs after the genomes—shown in yellow—have split into two new daughter cells. The myosin II is a motor protein shown in blue, and the actin filaments, which are types of protein that support cell structure, are shown in red.

Structure of the bacterial antitoxin protein GhoS. GhoS inhibits the production of a bacterial toxin, GhoT, which can contribute to antibiotic resistance. GhoS is the first known bacterial antitoxin that works by cleaving the messenger RNA that carries the instructions for making the toxin. More information can be found in the paper: Wang X, Lord DM, Cheng HY, Osbourne DO, Hong SH, Sanchez-Torres V, Quiroga C, Zheng K, Herrmann T, Peti W, Benedik MJ, Page R, Wood TK. A new type V toxin-antitoxin system where mRNA for toxin GhoT is cleaved by antitoxin GhoS. Nat Chem Biol. 2012 Oct;8(10):855-61. Related to 3427.

This image of the human brain uses colors and shapes to show neurological differences between two people. The blurred front portion of the brain, associated with complex thought, varies most between the individuals. The blue ovals mark areas of basic function that vary relatively little. Visualizations like this one are part of a project to map complex and dynamic information about the human brain, including genes, enzymes, disease states, and anatomy. The brain maps represent collaborations between neuroscientists and experts in math, statistics, computer science, bioinformatics, imaging, and nanotechnology.

Neutrophil-like cells (blue) in a microfluidic chip preferentially migrating toward LTB4 over fMLP. A neutrophil is a type of white blood cell that is part of the immune system and helps the body fight infection. Both LTB4 and fMLP are molecules involved in immune response. Microfluidic chips are small devices containing microscopic channels, and they are used in a range of applications, from basic research on cells to pathogen detection. The scale bar in this video is 500μm.

The green spots in this mouse brain are cells labeled with Calling Cards, a technology that records molecular events in brain cells as they mature. Understanding these processes during healthy development can guide further research into what goes wrong in cases of neuropsychiatric disorders. Also fluorescently labeled in this image are neurons (red) and nuclei (blue). Calling Cards and its application are described in the Cell paper “Self-Reporting Transposons Enable Simultaneous Readout of Gene Expression and Transcription Factor Binding in Single Cells” by Moudgil et al.; and the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences paper “A viral toolkit for recording transcription factor–DNA interactions in live mouse tissues” by Cammack et al. The technology was also featured in the NIH Director’s Blog post The Amazing Brain: Tracking Molecular Events with Calling Cards.

Related to video

A 3D reconstruction, created using cryo-electron microscopy, of an ion channel known as the full-length serotonin receptor in complex with the antinausea drug granisetron (orange). Ion channels are proteins in cell membranes that help regulate many processes.

Various views of a mouse brain that was genetically modified so that subpopulations of its neurons glow. Researchers often study mice because they share many genes with people and can shed light on biological processes, development, and diseases in humans.

This video was captured using a light sheet microscope.

Related to images 6929 and 6930.

To simulate the consequences of disrupting bacterial cell-to-cell communication, called quorum sensing, in the crypts (small chambers within the colon), the researchers experimented with an inhibitor molecule (i.e., antagonist) to turn off quorum sensing in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), an antibiotic-resistant strain of bacteria that often causes human infections. In this experiment, a medium promoting bacterial growth flows through experimental chambers mimicking the colon environment. The chambers on the right contained no antagonist. In the left chambers, after being added to the flowing medium, the quorum-sensing-inhibiting molecules quickly spread throughout the crevices, inactivating quorum sensing and reducing colonization. These results suggest a potential strategy for addressing MRSA virulence via inhibitors of bacterial communication. You can read more about this research here.

Embryonic stem cells store pre-activated Bax (red) in the Golgi, near the nucleus (blue). Featured in the June 21, 2012, issue of Biomedical Beat.

A mosquito larva with genes edited by CRISPR. The red-orange glow is a fluorescent protein used to track the edits. This species of mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus, can transmit West Nile virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, and avian malaria, among other diseases. The researchers who took this image developed a gene-editing toolkit for Culex quinquefasciatus that could ultimately help stop the mosquitoes from spreading pathogens. The work is described in the Nature Communications paper "Optimized CRISPR tools and site-directed transgenesis towards gene drive development in Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes" by Feng et al. Related to image 6770 and video 6771.

In 2006, scientists developed an optical microscopy technique enabling them to clearly see individual molecules within cells. In 2007, they took the technique, abbreviated STORM, a step further. They identified multicolored probes that let them peer into cells and clearly see multiple cellular components at the same time, such as these microtubules (green) and small hollows called clathrin-coated pits (red). Unlike conventional methods, the multicolor STORM technique produces a crisp and high resolution picture. A sharper view of how cellular components interact will likely help scientists answer some longstanding questions about cell biology.

The largest human cell (by volume) is the egg. Human eggs are 150 micrometers in diameter and you can just barely see one with a naked eye. In comparison, consider the eggs of chickens...or ostriches!

This animation shows the effect of exposure to hypochlorous acid, which is found in certain types of immune cells, on bacterial proteins. The proteins unfold and stick to one another, leading to cell death.

Cell mopping up.

An anchor cell (red) pushes through the basement membrane (green) that surrounds it. Some cells are able to push through the tough basement barrier to carry out important tasks--and so can cancer cells, when they spread from one part of the body to another. No one has been able to recreate basement membranes in the lab and they're hard to study in humans, so Duke University researchers turned to the simple worm C. elegans. The researchers identified two molecules that help certain cells orient themselves toward and then punch through the worm's basement membrane. Studying these molecules and the genes that control them could deepen our understanding of cancer spread.

Three-dimensional image of misfolded proteins (green) within mitochondria (red). Related to image 5878. Learn more in this press release by The American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Three fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) ovarioles (yellow, blue, and magenta) with egg cells visible inside them. Ovarioles are tubes in the reproductive systems of female insects. Egg cells form at one end of an ovariole and complete their development as they reach the other end, as shown in the yellow wild-type ovariole. This process requires an important protein that is missing in the blue and magenta ovarioles. This image was created using confocal microscopy.

More information on the research that produced this image can be found in the Current Biology paper “Gatekeeper function for Short stop at the ring canals of the Drosophila ovary” by Lu et al.

X-ray co-crystal structure of Src kinase bound to a DNA-templated macrocycle inhibitor. Related to 3413, 3414, 3416, 3417, 3418, and 3419.

Microtubules (magenta) in neurons of the hippocampus, a part of the brain involved in learning and memory. Microtubules are strong, hollow fibers that provide structural support to cells. This image was captured using Stochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy (STORM).

Related to images 6889, 6891, and 6892.

Along with blood vessels (red) and nerve cells (green), this mouse brain shows abnormal protein clumps known as plaques (blue). These plaques multiply in the brains of people with Alzheimer's disease and are associated with the memory impairment characteristic of the disease. Because mice have genomes nearly identical to our own, they are used to study both the genetic and environmental factors that trigger Alzheimer's disease. Experimental treatments are also tested in mice to identify the best potential therapies for human patients.

This image was part of the Life: Magnified exhibit that ran from June 3, 2014, to January 21, 2015, at Dulles International Airport.

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), shown here as tiny purple spheres, causes the disease known as AIDS (for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). HIV can infect multiple cells in your body, including brain cells, but its main target is a cell in the immune system called the CD4 lymphocyte (also called a T-cell or CD4 cell).

These induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells) were derived from a woman's skin. Blue show nuclei. Green show a protein found in iPS cells but not in skin cells (NANOG). The red dots show the inactivated X chromosome in each cell. These cells can develop into a variety of cell types. Image and caption information courtesy of the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine. Related to image 3278.

A cancer cell with three nuclei, shown in turquoise. The abnormal number of nuclei indicates that the cell failed to go through cell division, probably more than once. Mitochondria are shown in yellow, and a protein of the cell’s cytoskeleton appears in red. This video was captured using a confocal microscope.

Like a map showing heavily traveled roads, this mathematical model of metabolic activity inside an E. coli cell shows the busiest pathway in white. Reaction pathways used less frequently by the cell are marked in red (moderate activity) and green (even less activity). Visualizations like this one may help scientists identify drug targets that block key metabolic pathways in bacteria.

Model of the enzyme aminopeptidase N from the human pathogen Neisseria meningitidis, which can cause meningitis epidemics. The structure provides insight on the active site of this important molecule.

Hydra magnipapillata is an invertebrate animal used as a model organism to study developmental questions, for example the formation of the body axis.