The nucleus of a degenerating human tendon cell, also known as a tenocyte. It has been color-coded based on the density of chromatin—a substance made up of DNA and proteins. Areas of low chromatin density are shown in blue, and areas of high chromatin density are shown in red. This image was captured using Stochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy (STORM).

Related to images 6887 and 6888.

A scanning electron microscope image of an activated mast cell. This image illustrates the interesting topography of the cell membrane, which is populated with receptors. The distribution of receptors may affect cell signaling. This image relates to a July 27, 2009 article in Computing Life.

This image of the human brain uses colors and shapes to show neurological differences between two people. The blurred front portion of the brain, associated with complex thought, varies most between the individuals. The blue ovals mark areas of basic function that vary relatively little. Visualizations like this one are part of a project to map complex and dynamic information about the human brain, including genes, enzymes, disease states, and anatomy. The brain maps represent collaborations between neuroscientists and experts in math, statistics, computer science, bioinformatics, imaging, and nanotechnology.

Acetylsalicylate (bottom) is the aspirin of today. Adding a chemical tag called an acetyl group (shaded box, bottom) to a molecule derived from willow bark (salicylate, top) makes the molecule less acidic (and easier on the lining of the digestive tract), but still effective at relieving pain. See image 2529 for an unlabeled version of this illustration. Featured in Medicines By Design.

This animation shows atoms of the HIV capsid, the shell that encloses the virus's genetic material. Scientists determined the exact structure of the capsid using a variety of imaging techniques and analyses. They then entered this data into a supercomputer to produce this image. Related to image 3477.

A model of the molecule himastatin, which was first isolated from the bacterium Streptomyces himastatinicus. Himastatin shows antibiotic activity. The researchers who created this image developed a new, more concise way to synthesize himastatin so it can be studied more easily.

More information about the research that produced this image can be found in the Science paper “Total synthesis of himastatin” by D’Angelo et al.

Related to image 6850 and video 6851.

Microtubules (magenta) in neurons of the hippocampus, a part of the brain involved in learning and memory. Microtubules are strong, hollow fibers that provide structural support to cells. This image was captured using Stochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy (STORM).

Related to images 6889, 6891, and 6892.

A peripheral nerve cell made from human embryonic stem cell-derived neural crest stem cells. The nucleus is shown in blue, and nerve cell proteins peripherin and beta-tubulin (Tuj1) are shown in green and red, respectively. Related to image 3263.

The "epigenetic code" controls gene activity with chemical tags that mark DNA (purple diamonds) and the "tails" of histone proteins (purple triangles). These markings help determine whether genes will be transcribed by RNA polymerase. Genes hidden from access to RNA polymerase are not expressed. See image 2562 for an unlabeled version of this illustration. Featured in The New Genetics.

This is an adult flowering Arabidopsis thaliana plant with the inbred designation L-er. Arabidopsis is the most widely used model organism for researchers who study plant genetics.

Stained cross section of a mouse tail.

The interior of a regenerating lizard tail 14 days after the original tail was amputated. Cell nuclei (blue), proliferating cells (green), cartilage (red), and muscle (white) have been visualized with immunofluorescence staining.

Gene transcription is a process by which the genetic information encoded in DNA is transcribed into RNA. It's essential for all life and requires the activity of proteins, called transcription factors, that detect where in a DNA strand transcription should start. In eukaryotes (i.e., those that have a nucleus and mitochondria), a protein complex comprising 14 different proteins is responsible for sniffing out transcription start sites and starting the process. This complex, called TFIID, represents the core machinery to which an enzyme, named RNA polymerase, can bind to and read the DNA and transcribe it to RNA. Scientists have used cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) to visualize the TFIID-RNA polymerase-DNA complex in unprecedented detail. In this illustration, TFIID (blue) contacts the DNA and recruits the RNA polymerase (gray) for gene transcription. The start of the transcribed gene is shown with a flash of light. To learn more about the research that has shed new light on gene transcription, see this news release from Berkeley Lab. Related to video 5730.

A computer model shows how the endoplasmic reticulum is close to and almost wraps around mitochondria in the cell. The endoplasmic reticulum is lime green and the mitochondria are yellow. This image relates to a July 27, 2009 article in Computing Life.

It has been said that gastrulation is the most important event in a person's life. This part of early embryonic development transforms a simple ball of cells and begins to define cell fate and the body axis. In a study published in Science magazine in March 2012, NIGMS grantee Bob Goldstein and his research group studied how contractions of actomyosin filaments in C. elegans and Drosophila embryos lead to dramatic rearrangements of cell and embryonic structure. This research is described in detail in the following article: "Triggering a Cell Shape Change by Exploiting Preexisting Actomyosin Contractions." In these images, myosin (green) and plasma membrane (red) are highlighted at four timepoints in gastrulation in the roundworm C. elegans. The blue highlights in the top three frames show how cells are internalized, and the site of closure around the involuting cells is marked with an arrow in the last frame. See related video 3334.

Duplicated pair of chromosomes lined up and ready to cross over.

Dictyostelium discoideum is a microscopic amoeba. A group of 100,000 form a mound as big as a grain of sand. Featured in The New Genetics.

This fingertip-shaped group of lights is a microscopic crystal called a quantum dot. About 10,000 times thinner than a sheet of paper, the dot radiates brilliant colors under ultraviolet light. Dots such as this one allow researchers to label and track individual molecules in living cells and may be used for speedy disease diagnosis, DNA testing, and screening for illegal drugs.

Antibiotic resistance in microbes is a serious health concern. So researchers have turned their attention to how bacteria undo the action of some antibiotics. Here, scientists set out to find the conditions that help individual bacterial cells survive in the presence of the antibiotic rifampicin. The research team used Mycobacterium smegmatis, a more harmless relative of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which infects the lung and other organs and causes serious disease.

In this image, genetically identical mycobacteria are growing in a miniature growth chamber called a microfluidic chamber. Using live imaging, the researchers found that individual mycobacteria will respond differently to the antibiotic, depending on the growth stage and other timing factors. The researchers used genetic tagging with green fluorescent protein to distinguish cells that can resist rifampicin and those that cannot. With this gene tag, cells tolerant of the antibiotic light up in green and those that are susceptible in violet, enabling the team to monitor the cells' responses in real time.

To learn more about how the researchers studied antibiotic resistance in mycobacteria, see this news release from Tufts University. Related to video 5752.

The image visualizes a part of the yeast molecular interaction network. The lines in the network represent connections among genes (shown as little dots) and different-colored networks indicate subnetworks, for instance, those in specific locations or pathways in the cell. Researchers use gene or protein expression data to build these networks; the network shown here was visualized with a program called Cytoscape. By following changes in the architectures of these networks in response to altered environmental conditions, scientists can home in on those genes that become central "hubs" (highly connected genes), for example, when a cell encounters stress. They can then further investigate the precise role of these genes to uncover how a cell's molecular machinery deals with stress or other factors. Related to images 3730 and 3733.

This image shows neonatal mouse heart cells. These cells were grown in the lab on a chip that aligns the cells in a way that mimics what is normally seen in the body. Green shows the muscle protein toponin I. Red indicates the muscle protein actin, and blue indicates the cell nuclei. The work shown here was part of a study attempting to grow heart tissue in the lab to repair damage after a heart attack. Image and caption information courtesy of the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine. Related to images 3281 and 3282.

X-ray crystallography allows researchers to see structures too small to be seen by even the most powerful microscopes. To visualize the arrangement of atoms within molecules, researchers can use the diffraction patterns obtained by passing X-ray beams through crystals of the molecule. This is a common way for solving the structures of proteins. See image 2511 for an unlabeled version of this illustration. Featured in The Structures of Life.

Like a watch wrapped around a wrist, a special enzyme encircles the double helix to repair a broken strand of DNA. Without molecules that can mend such breaks, cells can malfunction, die, or become cancerous. Related to image 3493.

A model of thymidylate synthase complementing protein from Thermotoga maritime.

On top, the brain of a sleep-deprived fly glows orange because of Bruchpilot, a communication protein between brain cells. These bright orange brain areas are associated with learning. On the bottom, a well-rested fly shows lower levels of Bruchpilot, which might make the fly ready to learn after a good night's rest.

Many disease-causing microbes manipulate their host’s metabolism and cells for their own ends. Microsporidia—which are parasites closely related to fungi—infect and multiply inside animal cells, and take the rearranging of cells’ interiors to a new level. They reprogram animal cells such that the cells start to fuse, causing them to form long, continuous tubes. As shown in this image of the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans, microsporidia (shown in red) have invaded the worm’s gut cells (the large blue dots are the cells' nuclei) and have instructed the cells to merge. The cell fusion enables the microsporidia to thrive and propagate in the expanded space. Scientists study microsporidia in worms to gain more insight into how these parasites manipulate their host cells. This knowledge might help researchers devise strategies to prevent or treat infections with microsporidia.

For more on the research into microsporidia, see this news release from the University of California San Diego. Related to images 5777 and 5778.

A study published in March 2012 used cryo-electron microscopy to determine the structure of the DNA replication origin recognition complex (ORC), a semi-circular, protein complex (yellow) that recognizes and binds DNA to start the replication process. The ORC appears to wrap around and bend approximately 70 base pairs of double stranded DNA (red and blue). Also shown is the protein Cdc6 (green), which is also involved in the initiation of DNA replication. Related to video 3307 that shows the structure from different angles. From a Brookhaven National Laboratory news release, "Study Reveals How Protein Machinery Binds and Wraps DNA to Start Replication."

The cerebellum is the brain's locomotion control center. Found at the base of your brain, the cerebellum is a single layer of tissue with deep folds like an accordion. People with damage to this region of the brain often have difficulty with balance, coordination and fine motor skills.

This image of a mouse cerebellum is part of a collection of such images in different colors and at different levels of magnification from the National Center for Microscopy and Imaging Research (NCMIR). Related to image 5795.

Like a group of barnacles hanging onto a rock, these human cells hang onto a matrix coated glass slide. Actin stress fibers, stained magenta, and the protein vinculin, stained green, make this adhesion possible. The fibroblast nuclei are stained blue.

Model of the catalytic portion of an enzyme, receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase from humans. The enzyme consists of two identical protein subunits, shown in blue and green. The groups made up of purple and red balls represent phosphate groups, chemical groups that can influence enzyme activity. This phosphatase removes phosphate groups from the enzyme tyrosine kinase, counteracting its effects.

Model of a member from the Tex protein family, which is implicated in transcriptional regulation and highly conserved in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. The structure shows significant homology to a human transcription elongation factor that may regulate multiple steps in mRNA synthesis.

Sepsis is the body’s overactive and extreme response to an infection. More than 1.7 million people get sepsis each year in the United States. Without prompt treatment, sepsis can lead to tissue damage, organ failure, and death. Many NIGMS-supported researchers are working to improve sepsis diagnosis and treatment. Learn more with our sepsis featured topic page.

See 6551 for the Spanish version of this infographic.

The cerebellum is the brain's locomotion control center. Every time you shoot a basketball, tie your shoe or chop an onion, your cerebellum fires into action. Found at the base of your brain, the cerebellum is a single layer of tissue with deep folds like an accordion. People with damage to this region of the brain often have difficulty with balance, coordination and fine motor skills. For a lower magnification, see image 3639.

This image was part of the Life: Magnified exhibit that ran from June 3, 2014, to January 21, 2015, at Dulles International Airport.

The atomic structure of the morphine biosynthetic enzyme salutaridine reductase bound to the cofactor NADPH. The substrate salutaridine is shown entering the active site.

Crystals of porcine alpha amylase protein created for X-ray crystallography, which can reveal detailed, three-dimensional protein structures.

Dose-response curves determine how much of a drug (X-axis) causes a particular effect, or a side effect, in the body (Y-axis). Featured in Medicines By Design.

Under the microscope, an E. coli cell lights up like a fireball. Each bright dot marks a surface protein that tells the bacteria to move toward or away from nearby food and toxins. Using a new imaging technique, researchers can map the proteins one at a time and combine them into a single image. This lets them study patterns within and among protein clusters in bacterial cells, which don't have nuclei or organelles like plant and animal cells. Seeing how the proteins arrange themselves should help researchers better understand how cell signaling works.

Anaphase is the critical step during mitosis when sister chromosomes are disjoined and directed to opposite spindle poles, ensuring equal distribution of the genome during cell division. In this image, one pair of sister chromosomes at the top was lost and failed to divide after chemical inhibition of polo-like kinase 1. This image depicts chromosomes (blue) separating away from the spindle mid-zone (red). Kinetochores (green) highlight impaired movement of some chromosomes away from the mid-zone or the failure of sister chromatid separation (top). Scientists are interested in detailing the signaling events that are disrupted to produce this effect. The image is a volume projection of multiple deconvolved z-planes acquired with a Nikon widefield fluorescence microscope.

This image was chosen as a winner of the 2016 NIH-funded research image call. The research that led to this image was funded by NIGMS.

Related to image 5765.

Crystals of DNase protein created for X-ray crystallography, which can reveal detailed, three-dimensional protein structures.

This image captures the spiral-shaped ovary of an anglerfish in cross-section. Once matured, these eggs will be released in a gelatinous, floating mass. For some species of anglerfish, this egg mass can be up to 3 feet long and include nearly 200,000 eggs.

This image was part of the Life: Magnified exhibit that ran from June 3, 2014, to January 21, 2015, at Dulles International Airport.

Superconducting magnet for NMR research, from the February 2003 profile of Dorothee Kern in Findings.

Proteins are 3D structures made up of smaller units. DNA is transcribed to RNA, which in turn is translated into amino acids. Amino acids form a protein strand, which has sections of corkscrew-like coils, called alpha helices, and other sections that fold flat, called beta sheets. The protein then goes through complex folding to produce the 3D structure.

Haplotypes are combinations of gene variants that are likely to be inherited together within the same chromosomal region. In this example, an original haplotype (top) evolved over time to create three newer haplotypes that each differ by a few nucleotides (red). See image 2567 for a labeled version of this illustration. Featured in The New Genetics.

A zebrafish embryo showing its natural colors. Zebrafish have see-through eggs and embryos, making them ideal research organisms for studying the earliest stages of development. This image was taken in transmitted light under a polychromatic polarizing microscope.

A 3D reconstruction of a transient receptor potential channel called TRPV5 that was created based on cryo-electron microscopy images. TRPV5 is primarily found in kidney cells and is essential for reabsorbing calcium into the blood.

NMR solution structure of a plant protein that may function in host defense. This protein was expressed in a convenient and efficient wheat germ cell-free system. Featured as the June 2007 Protein Structure Initiative Structure of the Month.

This illustration shows, in simplified terms, how the CRISPR-Cas9 system can be used as a gene-editing tool. The CRISPR system has two components joined together: a finely tuned targeting device (a small strand of RNA programmed to look for a specific DNA sequence) and a strong cutting device (an enzyme called Cas9 that can cut through a double strand of DNA). In this frame (2 of 4), the CRISPR machine locates the target DNA sequence once inserted into a cell.

For an explanation and overview of the CRISPR-Cas9 system, see the iBiology video, and find the full CRIPSR illustration here.

The structure of the pore-forming protein VDAC-1 from humans. This molecule mediates the flow of products needed for metabolism--in particular the export of ATP--across the outer membrane of mitochondria, the power plants for eukaryotic cells. VDAC-1 is involved in metabolism and the self-destruction of cells--two biological processes central to health.

Related to images 2491, 2494, and 2495.

These cells are induced stem cells made from human adult skin cells that were genetically reprogrammed to mimic embryonic stem cells. The induced stem cells were made potentially safer by removing the introduced genes and the viral vector used to ferry genes into the cells, a loop of DNA called a plasmid. The work was accomplished by geneticist Junying Yu in the laboratory of James Thomson, a University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health professor and the director of regenerative biology for the Morgridge Institute for Research.